Legal Glossary

Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service. A public body that provides free advice on workplace disputes and offers Early Conciliation before employment tribunal claims.

A formal document filed by a defendant confirming they have received the claim form, and indicating whether they intend to defend the claim.

The postponement or suspension of a court hearing to a later date or time. A judge may adjourn a hearing at the request of a party or of their own initiative.

A claim relating to maritime law matters such as shipping disputes, cargo damage, or collisions at sea, typically dealt with in the Admiralty Court.

A written statement of facts confirmed by the person making it under oath or affirmation. Used as evidence in court proceedings.

To solemnly promise to tell the truth in court without swearing a religious oath. Also refers to an appeal court upholding a lower court decision.

The process by which the court assigns a case to one of three tracks (small claims, fast track, or multi-track) based on the value and complexity of the claim.

Methods of resolving disputes outside court, including mediation, arbitration, and negotiation. Courts actively encourage ADR and may penalise parties who unreasonably refuse it.

To change or alter a document that has been filed at court, such as particulars of claim or a defence. Permission from the court may be required.

The former name for financial remedy proceedings in divorce cases. Now referred to as financial remedy proceedings.

Now known as a Search Order. A court order allowing a party to enter premises to search for and seize evidence that might otherwise be destroyed. Named after the case Anton Piller KG v Manufacturing Processes Ltd.

An application to a higher court to review and change the decision of a lower court. Appeals are generally only allowed on points of law or where the lower court made a serious procedural error.

The party who brings an appeal against a court decision.

A person who makes an application to the court, for example for an injunction or other court order.

A form of alternative dispute resolution where an independent arbitrator makes a binding decision on a dispute, rather than the matter going to court.

The process by which the court determines the amount of legal costs one party must pay to the other. Can be done on a standard or indemnity basis.

A method of enforcing a judgment debt by requiring the debtor's employer to make regular deductions from wages and pay them directly to the creditor.

The standard of proof in civil cases. A party must show that their version of events is more likely than not to be true (more than 50% probable).

A legal process for individuals who cannot pay their debts. A bankruptcy order may be made by the court following a petition, resulting in the debtor's assets being distributed to creditors.

A qualified legal professional who specialises in advocacy and giving expert legal opinions. Barristers are typically instructed by solicitors to represent clients in court.

The first element of compensation for unfair dismissal, calculated in the same way as a statutory redundancy payment based on age, length of service, and weekly pay.

The seat or seats where judges sit in court. Also used to refer to the judges collectively.

A detailed document listing all costs claimed by a party in litigation, prepared for the purpose of detailed assessment.

The failure by a party to perform their obligations under a contract without a lawful excuse. The innocent party may claim damages or seek other remedies.

Instructions given by a solicitor to a barrister to represent a client at a hearing. Also refers to the bundle of documents provided.

A paginated, indexed collection of documents prepared for a court hearing. Bundles must typically comply with court rules regarding format and content.

The obligation on a party to prove their case. In civil proceedings, the burden usually falls on the claimant to prove their claim on the balance of probabilities.

A 'without prejudice save as to costs' offer to settle. Named after the case of Calderbank v Calderbank. Used where Part 36 does not apply.

The legal ability of a person to enter into contracts, bring legal proceedings, or make decisions. Minors and persons lacking mental capacity have limited legal capacity.

The process by which the court controls the progress of a case, including setting timetables, giving directions, and ensuring cases are dealt with efficiently.

A hearing at which the court reviews the progress of a case and gives directions about how it should proceed to trial.

The link between the defendant's wrongful act and the claimant's loss. The claimant must show that the loss was caused by the defendant's breach or negligence.

The legal basis on which a claim is made. For example, breach of contract, negligence, or unfair dismissal.

A formal notice filed to prevent a certain action being taken without the filer being notified, commonly used in probate to prevent a grant being issued.

A judge's private room where hearings may take place away from the public courtroom. Many interim applications are heard in chambers.

A court order that secures a judgment debt against a debtor's property (usually their home). If the debt is not paid, the property may be forced to be sold.

A court order determining with whom a child shall live and when the child shall spend time with each parent or other person.

A timeline of key events relevant to a case, usually prepared as a document for the court. Chronologies help the judge understand the sequence of events.

A judge who sits in the County Court or Crown Court. Circuit judges hear more complex civil cases than district judges.

The document (Form N1) used to start civil proceedings in the County Court or High Court. It sets out the basic details of the claim.

The person who starts civil court proceedings by issuing a claim form. Formerly known as the plaintiff.

A detailed estimate of the claimant's future costs in multi-track cases, filed on Precedent H for the court to approve or revise.

Proceedings to send someone to prison for contempt of court, for example for breaching a court order.

An award of damages designed to compensate a party for actual losses suffered. In employment law, it is the main element of an unfair dismissal award.

Now called a Settlement Agreement. A legally binding agreement between employer and employee settling claims, usually in exchange for a payment. The employee must receive independent legal advice.

Where more than one court has the power to hear a particular case.

A condition that must be fulfilled before a contractual obligation becomes binding or before a right can be exercised.

A funding arrangement where a solicitor agrees to act on a 'no win, no fee' basis, with a success fee payable if the case is won.

Agreement or permission given voluntarily. In contract law, valid consent requires capacity, free will, and proper understanding of the terms.

A court order made with the agreement of all parties. Often used to record the terms of a settlement.

Something of value given by each party to a contract in exchange for the other's promise. A contract without consideration (unless made by deed) is generally not enforceable.

The combining of two or more sets of proceedings into a single action, usually because they involve common issues of fact or law.

When an employee resigns because the employer has fundamentally breached the employment contract. The resignation is treated as a dismissal in law.

Behaviour that defies or disrespects the authority of the court, including disobeying court orders, disrupting proceedings, or publishing restricted information.

Where the claimant's own carelessness partly caused or contributed to their loss. Damages may be reduced to reflect the claimant's share of blame.

The legal process of transferring ownership of property from one person to another.

The legal expenses incurred in bringing or defending a case. The court can order one party to pay some or all of the other party's costs.

A detailed estimate of the costs a party expects to incur in litigation, filed with the court for approval in multi-track cases (Precedent H).

A court order limiting the amount of costs that can be recovered, used to keep litigation proportionate.

A claim made by a defendant against the claimant in the same proceedings. It is treated as a separate claim but dealt with at the same time.

A civil court that deals with a wide range of cases including contract disputes, personal injury, housing, and debt recovery. Most civil claims are issued here.

The court that hears appeals from the High Court, County Court, and certain tribunals. Has Civil and Criminal divisions.

A formal promise in a deed, particularly in property law. Restrictive covenants limit what can be done with land; positive covenants require certain actions.

The rules governing how civil cases are conducted in the County Court and High Court in England and Wales. They set out procedures, time limits, and requirements for all stages of litigation.

The questioning of a witness by the opposing party or their representative. The purpose is to test the reliability and accuracy of the witness's evidence.

A sum of money awarded by the court as compensation for loss or injury caused by another party's wrongful act or breach of obligation.

A funding arrangement where the lawyer's fee is a percentage of the damages recovered. If the case is lost, no fee is payable.

A court order that states the legal position or rights of the parties, without requiring any party to do or pay anything.

A formal legal document that is signed, witnessed, and delivered. Used for transferring property, granting powers of attorney, and other significant transactions.

A judgment entered against a defendant who fails to respond to a claim within the required time period, without the need for a hearing.

The document filed by a defendant setting out their response to the claimant's case, including any admissions, denials, or alternative version of events.

The person against whom civil proceedings are brought. In employment tribunal proceedings, the equivalent is the respondent.

Evidence given under oath outside court, recorded in writing. Used when a witness is unable to attend the hearing.

A line-by-line review of a party's legal costs by a costs judge, used when parties cannot agree the amount of costs to be paid.

A claim by a landlord against a tenant for breach of repairing obligations in a lease, usually made at the end of the lease term.

Instructions given by the court setting out the steps that must be taken and the timetable for preparing a case for trial.

Expenses paid by a solicitor on behalf of a client during a case, such as court fees, expert fees, barrister's fees, and photocopying costs.

The process by which parties must reveal to each other all documents relevant to the issues in the case, whether helpful or harmful to their position.

The process by which a claimant can end proceedings without obtaining a judgment. The claimant usually becomes liable for the defendant's costs.

The former term for disclosure. The process of revealing relevant documents to the other party in litigation.

Treating a person less favourably because of a protected characteristic such as age, disability, gender, race, religion, sexual orientation, or pregnancy.

The termination of a person's employment by their employer. Can be fair (with valid reason and proper procedure) or unfair.

A judge who sits in the County Court and deals with the majority of civil cases, particularly small claims and fast track matters.

Threats or pressure that compel a person to act against their will. A contract entered into under duress may be voidable.

A legal obligation to take reasonable care to avoid causing harm to others. The foundation of a claim in negligence.

A mandatory process through ACAS that potential employment tribunal claimants must undertake before issuing proceedings, giving parties an opportunity to resolve disputes.

A right over someone else's land, such as a right of way or right to light. Easements can be created by deed, prescription, or necessity.

The process of compelling compliance with a court judgment or order. Methods include warrants of control, attachment of earnings, charging orders, and third party debt orders.

A right in property recognised by equity but not by common law, such as the interest of a beneficiary under a trust.

A remedy granted at the court's discretion, such as an injunction, specific performance, or rescission. Available where damages would be inadequate.

A legal principle that prevents a person from going back on a promise or representation if another person has relied on it to their detriment.

Information presented to the court to prove or disprove facts in issue. Includes witness statements, documents, photographs, and expert reports.

The evidence given by a witness when first called to give evidence by the party who called them. In civil cases this is typically contained in the witness statement.

Now usually called 'without notice'. An application made to the court by one party without the other party being present or having been given notice.

The questioning of a witness by the party who called them. In civil proceedings this is largely replaced by the witness statement standing as evidence in chief.

The process of enforcing a court judgment, typically referring to the seizure of goods by enforcement agents to satisfy a debt.

Damages awarded to punish the defendant for outrageous conduct, rather than to compensate the claimant. Rare in civil proceedings.

A document or item referred to in a witness statement or affidavit and attached to it. Each exhibit must be clearly identified and labelled.

A person with specialist knowledge or qualifications who gives an opinion to the court on matters within their expertise. The expert's overriding duty is to the court.

A dismissal for a potentially fair reason (such as capability, conduct, redundancy, or statutory restriction) where the employer followed a fair procedure.

The court track for claims valued between £10,000 and £25,000 that can be tried in one day. Has a fixed timetable and limited costs recovery.

A duty of trust and loyalty owed by one person to another, such as a director to a company or a trustee to beneficiaries.

The act of delivering documents to the court for inclusion in the court file. Documents can be filed in person, by post, or electronically.

The trial or main hearing where the court makes a final determination of the issues in the case, as opposed to interim or preliminary hearings.

Court orders dealing with the financial arrangements between spouses on divorce, including division of assets, maintenance, and pension sharing.

Predetermined amounts of costs that can be recovered in certain types of cases, as set out in the Civil Procedure Rules.

An event beyond the control of the parties (such as war, natural disaster, or pandemic) that prevents performance of contractual obligations.

The loss of a right, typically a landlord's right to terminate a lease because the tenant has breached its terms.

The court or tribunal in which proceedings are brought. Disputes about the appropriate forum are decided by rules on jurisdiction.

Absolute ownership of land for an unlimited period. The highest form of land ownership in English law.

A court order preventing a party from disposing of or dealing with their assets, to ensure they are available to satisfy a judgment. Formerly called a Mareva injunction.

The automatic termination of a contract when an unforeseen event makes performance impossible, illegal, or radically different from what was agreed.

Now called a Third Party Debt Order. An order requiring a third party who owes money to the judgment debtor to pay it directly to the judgment creditor instead.

Compensation for losses that are not easily quantifiable in monetary terms, such as pain and suffering, loss of amenity, or future losses.

Honesty and fairness in dealing with others. An implied duty in certain contracts and increasingly recognised as an obligation in long-term commercial relationships.

A formal complaint raised by an employee about their treatment at work. Employers should have a grievance procedure in accordance with the ACAS Code of Practice.

Very serious employee misconduct that fundamentally breaches the employment contract, potentially justifying summary dismissal without notice.

The specific reasons on which an appeal is based. These must be clearly stated in the appellant's notice and usually relate to errors of law or serious procedural irregularity.

A promise by one party (the guarantor) to be responsible for the debt or obligations of another party if that party fails to meet them.

A legal remedy requiring a person who is detained to be brought before the court so the lawfulness of their detention can be examined.

Unwanted conduct related to a protected characteristic that has the purpose or effect of violating a person's dignity or creating an intimidating environment.

A court session at which a case or application is considered by a judge. Can be in open court or in private (formerly 'in chambers').

Evidence of a statement made out of court that is offered to prove the truth of what was said. In civil proceedings, hearsay evidence is admissible but notice must be given.

A senior court that deals with complex or high-value civil cases. Divided into the Queen's Bench Division, Chancery Division, and Family Division.

A term that is not expressly stated in a contract but is read into it by law, custom, or business necessity. For example, terms implied by statute in employment contracts.

An obligation on one party to compensate another for loss or damage. Also refers to the more generous basis for assessing costs.

Costs assessed on a more generous basis than standard costs. Any doubt as to whether costs were reasonably incurred is resolved in favour of the receiving party.

A formal document setting out the charges against a person accused of a serious criminal offence to be tried in the Crown Court.

A court order requiring a party to do something (mandatory injunction) or to refrain from doing something (prohibitory injunction). Breach of an injunction is contempt of court.

A court order requiring a party to do or refrain from doing something. Granted as an equitable remedy where damages would be inadequate.

The state of being unable to pay debts as they fall due (cash flow insolvency) or having liabilities that exceed assets (balance sheet insolvency).

An application made during proceedings before the final hearing, such as an application for an injunction, specific disclosure, or summary judgment.

A payment on account of damages or costs ordered by the court before the final determination of the claim.

Relating to an interim or provisional step in proceedings, as opposed to a final determination. Now more commonly referred to as 'interim'.

To formally start legal proceedings by filing the claim form at court and having it sealed and dated by the court office.

The process of adding additional parties to existing proceedings, either as claimants or defendants.

Where two or more parties are each independently liable for the full amount of a claim. The claimant can recover the full amount from any one of them.

The formal decision of the court on the matters in dispute. A judgment may order the payment of money, grant an injunction, or make declarations.

The process by which the High Court reviews the lawfulness of decisions made by public bodies, government ministers, and inferior courts or tribunals.

The authority of a court to hear and decide a case. Depends on factors such as the type of claim, the amount in dispute, and the geographical area.

In legal context, what a person actually knew or ought reasonably to have known. Relevant to limitation periods, discrimination claims, and duties of care.

The area of law governing the relationship between the owner of property and the person who occupies it under a lease or tenancy agreement.

Ownership of property for a fixed period of time under a lease. The leaseholder has rights and obligations as set out in the lease.

Permission from the court. Now more commonly referred to as 'permission'. For example, permission to appeal or permission to amend a statement of case.

Government-funded legal assistance for people who cannot afford to pay for legal representation. Availability is now very limited in civil cases.

A letter sent to a potential defendant before issuing court proceedings, setting out the basis of the claim and giving the recipient an opportunity to respond. Required by pre-action protocols.

Legal responsibility for one's acts or omissions. A party is liable if the court finds they have breached a duty owed to the other party.

The right to retain possession of another person's property until a debt owed by the owner is paid.

The time limit within which legal proceedings must be started. For most contract and tort claims this is 6 years; for personal injury it is 3 years.

A sum specified in a contract as the amount payable in the event of a breach. Must be a genuine pre-estimate of loss to be enforceable.

A pending lawsuit. The doctrine that a pending legal action gives notice to all parties of a claim on the property involved.

A person who represents themselves in court proceedings without a solicitor or barrister. Also called a self-represented litigant.

A person who conducts court proceedings on behalf of a child (under 18) or a protected party (someone who lacks mental capacity).

The right or capacity to bring an action or appear in court. A party must have sufficient interest in the matter to have standing.

Temporary financial support ordered by the court during divorce proceedings, before the final financial settlement.

A court order requiring a public body to perform a public duty. One of the remedies available in judicial review proceedings.

The former name for a freezing injunction. An order preventing a party from dissipating their assets before judgment.

A breach of contract that is so serious it goes to the root of the agreement, entitling the innocent party to terminate the contract and claim damages.

A person who assists a litigant in person in court by taking notes, quietly making suggestions, and organising documents. They do not usually have a right to address the court.

A form of alternative dispute resolution where an independent mediator helps the parties negotiate a settlement. The mediator does not make a decision but facilitates agreement.

A false statement of fact made by one party to another that induces the other party to enter into a contract. Can be fraudulent, negligent, or innocent.

The duty of a claimant to take reasonable steps to minimise their loss. Failure to mitigate can reduce the amount of damages awarded.

An online service for issuing and managing money claims up to £100,000 through the County Court.

A legal charge over property given as security for a loan. If the borrower defaults, the lender may seek possession and sale of the property.

The court track for cases valued at more than £25,000 or those of particular complexity. Provides for more extensive case management and longer trials.

The fundamental principles of fairness in legal proceedings: that a person is entitled to a fair hearing and that the decision-maker must be impartial.

A tort consisting of a breach of the duty of care owed to the claimant, which causes foreseeable loss or damage. The claimant must prove duty, breach, causation, and damage.

A submission made by the defendant at the close of the claimant's case that the claimant has not produced enough evidence to establish their claim.

A court order in family law prohibiting a person from molesting, threatening, or intimidating another person or a child.

Formal notification given to a party, often required before certain steps can be taken. For example, notice of intention to rely on hearsay evidence.

An unlawful interference with a person's use or enjoyment of their land (private nuisance) or with the public's rights (public nuisance).

A solemn promise to tell the truth, typically sworn on a religious text. Witnesses in court give evidence on oath or affirmation.

A formal protest raised during a hearing, usually about the admissibility of evidence or the propriety of a question being asked of a witness.

A court order regulating who may live in the family home. Can exclude one party from the home or restrict them to part of it.

A proposal by one party to resolve the case on certain terms. May be made under Part 36 of the CPR, which carries significant costs consequences.

Written legal advice from a barrister on a particular issue or the merits of a case. Also called a 'counsel's opinion' or 'advice'.

A court hearing at which a judgment debtor is required to attend and answer questions about their income, assets, and ability to pay under oath.

A formal instruction from the court requiring the parties or others to do or not do something. Must be obeyed; failure to comply may be contempt of court.

The fundamental principle of the CPR: to deal with cases justly and at proportionate cost. All procedural rules must be interpreted in accordance with this objective.

All the rights, duties, powers, and responsibilities a parent has in relation to their child. Mothers have it automatically; fathers may need to acquire it.

A formal offer to settle made under CPR Part 36. Carries automatic costs consequences if the case goes to trial and the judgment is not more advantageous than the offer.

The document setting out the details of the claimant's case, including the facts relied upon, the legal basis for the claim, and the remedy sought.

The people or organisations involved in a legal dispute. In civil proceedings these are typically the claimant and defendant.

A contractual term requiring a party to pay an excessive sum for breach, which the court may refuse to enforce as being out of proportion to any legitimate interest.

A strict court order, often called an 'unless order', which states that if a party fails to comply, their case (or defence) will be struck out automatically.

Authorisation from the court to take a particular step, such as appealing a decision, amending a document, or calling expert evidence.

The authorisation required before an appeal can proceed. Can be sought from the judge who made the decision or from the appeal court itself.

Physical or psychological harm caused to a person. Personal injury claims typically involve negligence, workplace accidents, or road traffic accidents.

A formal application to the court, used in particular types of proceedings such as divorce, bankruptcy, and winding up.

The formal documents exchanged by the parties setting out their respective cases, including the particulars of claim, defence, and any reply or counterclaim.

Physical control of land or property. Possession proceedings allow a landlord or mortgage lender to recover property from an occupant.

Supplementary rules that accompany the CPR, providing detailed guidance on how specific procedures should be carried out.

Codes of conduct that parties must follow before starting court proceedings. They require exchanging information, considering ADR, and attempting to settle.

A previous court decision that must be followed by lower courts when dealing with similar legal issues. The doctrine of binding precedent is a cornerstone of English law.

A hearing held before the main trial to deal with procedural matters, case management, or to determine a preliminary issue that may resolve the case.

The acquisition of rights (such as easements) through long use over a specified period. Also refers to the time limits for bringing claims in some jurisdictions.

The right to withhold documents or communications from disclosure. Includes legal professional privilege (advice from lawyers) and litigation privilege.

The principle that only parties to a contract can enforce its terms. Modified by the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.

Legal work done free of charge, typically for people who cannot afford to pay for legal advice or representation.

The legal process of administering a deceased person's estate, including proving the validity of a will and distributing assets.

A judge dealing with case management and procedural matters, as opposed to the judge who will hear the final trial.

The principle that the costs and procedures used in a case should be proportionate to the value, importance, and complexity of the issues involved.

One of nine characteristics protected by the Equality Act 2010: age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage/civil partnership, pregnancy/maternity, race, religion, sex, and sexual orientation.

A qualifying disclosure of information about wrongdoing in the workplace (whistleblowing). Workers are protected from dismissal or detriment for making protected disclosures.

An award made by an employment tribunal requiring an employer to pay wages to employees for a protected period where the employer failed to properly consult about collective redundancies.

The amount of money to be awarded as damages. Often dealt with separately from liability (whether the defendant is responsible at all).

A function that resembles that of a court but is exercised by a body that is not a court, such as a tribunal or disciplinary panel.

Changes an employer or service provider must make to remove disadvantages faced by a disabled person. Required by the Equality Act 2010.

An introductory paragraph in a court order or legal document setting out the background facts or the basis on which the order is made.

A remedy allowing the court to correct a written document that does not accurately reflect the parties' agreement.

The process by which a judge removes themselves from hearing a case because of a conflict of interest or bias, whether actual or perceived.

Dismissal because the employer's need for employees to do work of a particular kind has ceased or diminished. Employees may be entitled to a statutory redundancy payment.

The remedy or redress sought by a party in legal proceedings, such as damages, an injunction, or a declaration.

The sending back of a case from an appeal court to the original court or tribunal for rehearing or further consideration.

A document filed by the claimant in response to the defence, addressing any new matters raised.

A serious breach of contract that entitles the innocent party to treat the contract as at an end and claim damages.

A doctrine preventing the same issue from being litigated again between the same parties once it has been finally determined by a court.

The cancellation of a contract, restoring the parties to the position they were in before the contract was made. A remedy for misrepresentation.

The party against whom an appeal or application is brought. In employment tribunal proceedings, the employer is usually the respondent.

The response filed by the respondent (employer) in employment tribunal proceedings, setting out their defence to the claim.

A remedy requiring a party to restore a benefit they have unjustly received to the party from whom it was obtained.

A contractual clause restricting a person's right to carry on their trade or profession. Common in employment contracts but must be reasonable to be enforceable.

A table format used to set out claims and counter-claims, particularly in building and construction disputes. Lists each item of claim with the parties' respective positions.

Stamped by the court office with the court seal, confirming that a document has been officially issued or filed.

An order requiring a party (usually a claimant) to pay money into court as security for the other party's costs, in case the claim fails.

The formal delivery of court documents to a party. Rules about how and when documents must be served are set out in the CPR.

To cancel or reverse a court judgment or order. A judgment entered in default may be set aside if the defendant can show a good reason.

An agreement between the parties to resolve their dispute without the need for a trial. May be recorded in a consent order or a Tomlin order.

A legally binding agreement between employer and employee settling potential employment claims, usually in exchange for a payment. The employee must receive independent legal advice.

A concise written document setting out the main points of a party's argument and the authorities relied upon, filed before a hearing.

The court track for claims valued at £10,000 or less. Designed to be simple and informal, with limited costs recovery, making it accessible for litigants in person.

A qualified legal professional who provides legal advice, prepares documents, and may represent clients in court. Solicitors are usually the first point of contact for legal matters.

Compensation for specific quantifiable financial losses, such as lost earnings, medical expenses, and travel costs.

An order requiring a party to search for and disclose particular documents or categories of documents that have not been included in standard disclosure.

A court order in family proceedings giving directions about a specific question relating to a child's upbringing, such as schooling or medical treatment.

A court order requiring a party to perform their obligations under a contract, rather than paying damages. Typically used for unique items like land.

The obligation on each party to disclose documents on which they rely, documents that adversely affect their case or support another party's case.

The level of certainty required for a party to prove their case. In civil proceedings this is the balance of probabilities; in criminal proceedings it is beyond reasonable doubt.

The formal documents setting out a party's case, including the claim form, particulars of claim, defence, counterclaim, and reply.

A declaration on a statement of case or witness statement that the contents are believed to be true. Making a false statement of truth may amount to contempt of court.

Legislation setting out the time limits for bringing different types of legal claims. In England and Wales, the main statute is the Limitation Act 1980.

A formal written demand for payment of a debt of at least £750 (for bankruptcy) or £750 (for winding up). If not paid within 21 days, the creditor may petition for insolvency.

A halt or suspension of proceedings ordered by the court. Proceedings may be stayed to allow mediation, to await the outcome of another case, or for other reasons.

The court removing all or part of a statement of case because it discloses no reasonable grounds, is an abuse of process, or there has been non-compliance with court rules or orders.

An argument or point of law put forward by a party or their representative to the court, as distinct from evidence of fact.

Now called a witness summons. A court order requiring a person to attend court to give evidence or produce documents.

A quick assessment of costs made by the judge at the end of a hearing lasting less than one day, rather than referring costs for detailed assessment.

A procedure allowing the court to decide a claim or issue without a full trial, where one party has no real prospect of success and there is no other compelling reason for a trial.

A formal court document requiring someone to attend court. Includes witness summons (to give evidence) and jury summons.

A person who guarantees the performance of another's obligation. If the principal debtor defaults, the surety becomes liable.

The right to occupy and use property for a period of time, as granted by a lease or tenancy agreement.

A person who is not one of the original parties to the proceedings but may be joined or have an interest in the outcome.

A court order requiring a third party (such as a bank) who owes money to the judgment debtor to pay it directly to the judgment creditor.

A deadline by which a legal step must be taken. Missing a time limit can result in a claim being barred or a party being unable to take a particular step.

The legal right to ownership of property. Title to registered land is recorded at the Land Registry.

A type of consent order that stays proceedings on agreed terms set out in a schedule to the order. Allows the terms of settlement to remain confidential.

A civil wrong that causes harm or loss to another person, giving rise to a claim for damages. Examples include negligence, nuisance, defamation, and trespass.

The process by which the court assigns a case to the small claims track, fast track, or multi-track based on value, complexity, and other factors.

Regulations that protect employees' terms and conditions when a business or service is transferred to a new employer.

Unlawful interference with a person's body, land, or goods. Trespass to land means entering or remaining on someone's property without permission.

The final hearing at which the court hears all the evidence, considers the arguments of the parties, and makes a binding decision.

A specialist body that resolves disputes in particular areas of law, such as employment, tax, or immigration. Less formal than courts but decisions are legally binding.

A solemn promise given to the court or another party. Breach of an undertaking given to the court is treated as contempt of court.

The improper use of a position of trust or power to influence another person's decisions, particularly in relation to contracts and gifts.

The termination of employment without a fair reason or without following a fair procedure. Employees with qualifying service may claim unfair dismissal at an employment tribunal.

A claim that one party has been unfairly enriched at another's expense and should make restitution, even without a contract between them.

A court order specifying that unless a party takes a particular step by a deadline, their claim or defence will be struck out automatically.

A percentage increase to a compensation award, for example when a party has unreasonably failed to comply with the ACAS Code of Practice on disciplinary and grievance procedures.

The cancellation of a hearing date, usually at the request of one or both parties and with the court's permission.

A change to the terms of a contract or court order. Variation of a contract requires agreement; variation of a court order requires application to the court.

The decision of a jury or, more generally, the decision of the court on the issues in the case.

A person who has been made subject to a civil restraint order because of their persistent habit of starting meritless legal proceedings or making unwarranted applications.

The legal principle by which an employer is liable for the wrongful acts of their employees committed during the course of their employment.

Having no legal effect from the outset. A void contract is treated as though it never existed.

Valid until one party chooses to treat it as void. A voidable contract remains binding unless and until the innocent party elects to rescind it.

The provision of documents or information voluntarily, beyond what is required by the rules on standard disclosure.

The voluntary giving up of a right or entitlement. Can be express or implied from conduct.

An order authorising High Court Enforcement Officers or County Court bailiffs to seize and sell a debtor's goods to satisfy a judgment debt.

Costs incurred as a result of improper, unreasonable, or negligent conduct by a legal representative. The court can order the representative personally to pay these costs.

Reporting wrongdoing, illegal activity, or dangers in the workplace. Workers who blow the whistle are protected from dismissal and detriment under the Employment Rights Act 1996.

The process of closing down a company, settling its debts, and distributing any remaining assets to shareholders. Can be compulsory (by court order) or voluntary.

An application to the court by a creditor (or the company itself) to have a company wound up on the grounds that it is unable to pay its debts.

An application made to the court without giving the other party advance notice. Formerly known as 'ex parte'. Used in urgent cases where notice might defeat the purpose of the application.

A label applied to communications made in a genuine attempt to settle a dispute. Such communications cannot be disclosed to the court as evidence.

A person who gives evidence in court proceedings, either in writing (witness statement) or orally (at trial).

A written account of a witness's evidence, prepared for use in court proceedings. Must contain a statement of truth and be signed by the witness.

A court order requiring a person to attend court to give oral evidence or produce documents. Formerly known as a subpoena.

A formal written order issued by the court. In modern civil procedure, largely replaced by claim forms, but writs of control are still used in High Court enforcement.

Dismissal in breach of the employment contract, typically by failing to give the correct notice period. Distinct from unfair dismissal, which is a statutory claim.